ORIGINAL RESEARCH


https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10015-1748
World Journal of Dentistry
Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Year 2020

Specialty Career Choices of Interns and Dental Students in the Clinical Years at Taif University


Amal A Ashour

Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Corresponding Author: Amal A Ashour, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Phone: +966556565573, e-mail: a.a.ashour@tudent.edu.sa

How to cite this article Ashour AA. Specialty Career Choices of Interns and Dental Students in the Clinical Years at Taif University. World J Dent 2020;11(4):265–273.

Source of support: Nil

Conflict of interest: None

ABSTRACT

Aim and objective: The aim and objective of this study was to investigate the factors that influence the choice of specialty and career preferences in dental students and interns in their clinical years.

Materials and methods: This cross-sectional study was performed in the 5th-year and 6th-year dental students and interns at Taif University in Saudi Arabia. A self-administered questionnaire was formulated and sent electronically to the students via faculty e-mail. The responses were recorded on a Google spreadsheet, and the data were analyzed using SPSS for Windows.

Results: The majority of dental students expressed a preference for pediatric dentistry and restorative and esthetic dentistry. The main factor influencing their choice was the local shortage of dentists in these specialties. Negative experiences of students, their peers, or faculty members also affected the students’ career choices.

Conclusion: This study provides baseline data for establishing plans to improve graduate programs in Saudi Arabia. Mentoring initiatives are needed to provide guidance and encouragement for undergraduate dental students when selecting the most appropriate future specialty.

Clinical significance: The choice of dental specialty is a challenge for dental students and is affected by many factors. The knowledge of the factors that influence their choice of specialty would help when addressing the requirements of job market.

Keywords: Career, Dental students, Influencing factors, Specialty.

INTRODUCTION

According to a 2017 Ministry of Education report, approximately 1400 dental students graduate annually from the 28 dental schools in Saudi Arabia.1 After graduation, students pursue careers and postgraduate studies that meet their personal needs from the available options. Typically, they start work at academic institutions or hospital dental units in order to hone their skills and gain further knowledge in a specialist area in dentistry.2 These early career choices lead to opportunities to gain formal specialist qualifications from the Saudi Health Commission. The Saudi Health Commission offers 10 dental specialty programs, including family dental medicine, restorative dentistry, pedodontics, oral pathology, implantology, periodontology, orthodontics, oral surgery, endodontics, and prosthodontics.3 Furthermore, several universities in Saudi Arabia offer postgraduate specialty programs that are recognized by the Saudi Health Commission. The knowledge of the factors that influence a graduate’s choice of dental career would help when planning the dental workforce agenda.4

Many studies in general medicine and surgery have identified early career guidance and the support of inspiring clinicians as a key factor in career choices made by medical students and interns. The rotation system exposes students and interns to a broader range of specialties, which helps in the choice of a career.5 All medical organizations should offer career counseling for students and prepare them for potential difficulties that they may encounter after graduation.6,7

There is limited information on the factors that influence the choice of a career in dentistry and preferred specialty in Saudi Arabia.8 A study by Halawany in 2014 identified the preferred specialty to be maxillofacial surgery in 20.1% of male students and operative dentistry in 23.4% of female students.9 Another study in 2017 found that 17.7% of dental students surveyed expressed a preference for a career in restorative and esthetic dentistry while 14.1% preferred endodontics, 11.7% chose prosthodontics, and 11.4% opted for orthodontics.4 The same study also found “influence of family members in the dental profession” to be the most important determinant of career choice.

The important factors influencing the choice of dentistry as a profession include general interest,10,11 the artistic component of dentistry,1215 social standing and professional status,16 the ability to be self-employed,12,15 opportunity to help people,10,12,15,17 and good income.12,15,16 Thereafter, population demographics may influence the choice of specialty in dental graduates.11,1822 In Saudi Arabia, the strongest determinants of a graduate’s choice of dental specialty are having family members in the dental profession, preference for private practice, and an interest in treating a specific patient population.4 Interest in a specific patient population was found to be the most important factor influencing the choice of restorative and esthetic dentistry as a future specialty by Saudi dental graduates.4

The above-mentioned research on career choice by Saudi dental graduates and their preferred specialties has been conducted at a nationwide level.4,9 Such information is also required at the regional level so that providers of specialty programs at the various universities and the Saudi Health Commission can balance their curricula with community needs. The aim of this study was to identify factors influencing the choice of career and specialty in dental students and interns at Taif University.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study had a cross-sectional design and included 5th-year and 6th-year dental students and interns at Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia, during the period from February to April 2019. The study protocol was approved by the research and ethics committee at Taif University (clearance number 41-7027-0027). After reviewing the relevant literature, a questionnaire was developed to obtain the demographic data (date of birth, year of study, grade point average, information on whether or not the respondent had a first-degree relative in the medical or dental field), information on preferred specialty and its determinants, the reasons why some specialties were not considered, and preference for completing postgraduate education abroad or locally.4,7,9 The questionnaire was converted into an electronic version using Google forms and emailed to the study population. The responses were recorded in a Google spreadsheet. The data collected were anonymized, which ensured respondent confidentiality during the survey.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Frequency distribution tables were constructed for all independent and outcome variables. Proportions were examined for differences using the Chi-square test and Kruskal–Wallis H analysis of variance followed by intergroup comparison using the Mann–Whitney U test. All statistical analyzes were performed using SPSS for Windows version 17 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). All statistical tests were two-sided and a p value %3C; 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Fifty-two of the 56 students at Taif University at the time of the survey completed and returned the questionnaire. Seventeen respondents were 5th-year students, 21 were 6th-year students, and 14 were interns. Most of the study participants had a grade point average of <3.5 (Table 1) and approximately half had a first-degree relative in the medical or dental field (Table 2).

Sixth-year students were significantly more likely to select pediatric dentistry as a career than 5th-year students (p = 0.03), whereas dental interns were more likely to select restorative and esthetic dentistry (Table 3). The main reason for the career choice given by 5th-year students was personal interest. In the 6th-year, the reasons were future job opportunities, diversity of cases, high earning potential, opportunity to generate income in private practice, and shortage of specialists (Table 4). Students in their internship cited reasons of personal interest, shortage of specialists, and a positive experience during their undergraduate elective rotation.

Most of the students in their 5th and 6th years reported that they would not choose oral and maxillofacial surgery as a specialty career (Table 5), citing poor quality of life, lack of direct contact with patients, no opportunity for private practice, poor patient outcomes, and high clinical workload (Table 6). Most dental interns reported that they would not choose pediatric dentistry because of difficulties in managing behavior in children. In contrast, 5th-year students preferred pediatric dentistry and restorative dentistry, whereas 6th-year students preferred endodontics and orthodontics and interns preferred oral and maxillofacial surgery (Table 7). The proportion of 6th-year students who preferred orthodontics was significantly greater than that of 5th-year students and interns (p = 0.03).

Most of the study participants were planning to continue their postgraduate studies abroad (Table 8); the reasons given being better learning opportunities, newly established local programs, new specialty opportunities, experiencing another culture, and better research opportunities (Table 9).

DISCUSSION

This study investigated the factors influencing career choices and specialty preferences in students in their 5th and 6th years of training and in dental interns at Taif University. The survey response rate of 93% was considered satisfactory.

Selection of specialty careers by dental students has been studied in several countries, including Saudi Arabia.4,813,15 The findings of these studies have helped education providers to tailor specialty programs to the preferences of graduates, many of whom have an interest in postgraduate dental education. The various postgraduate dental programs differ in content but all have a focus on ongoing improvement in the quality of care, research, extending dental care to as many Saudi Arabians as possible, and increasing the number of qualified specialists in the country.23

An important finding in this study was that 50% of Taif Dental College students had a first-degree relative in the medical or dental field. This is consistent with a recent report by Halawany et al., who cited “influence of family members in the dental profession” as the strongest determinant of choice of dental specialty.4 Dental students and interns in the present study chose their future specialty according to personal interest, future job opportunities, diversity of cases, high earning potential, opportunity to generate income in private practice, shortage of specialists in particular areas, and a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation. These factors should be considered in initial career guidance, support provided in the undergraduate and internship years, and during elective rotations.57

Table 1: Distribution of study participants according to their grade point average
Year 5Year 6InternTotal
What is your mean GPA?< 3.51215  936
%3E; 4.5  0  4  2  6
4.49–3.5  5  2  310
Total17211452
Kruskal–Wallis H  0.07  0.09  0.09

GPA, grade point average

Table 2: Distribution of study participants according to whether they had a first-degree relative in the medical or dental field
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal–Wallis H
Do you have a first-degree relative in medicine or dentistry?No  811  7260.07
Yes  910  7260.08
Total17211452
Chi-square  0.07  0.09  0.09
Table 3: Distribution of study participants according to their career choice
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal–Wallis H
Which of the following specialties would you choose as a career?Pediatric dentistry  2  8  0100.03
Restorative and esthetic dentistry  4  7  5160.08
Endodontics  0  2  2  40.09
Oral and maxillofacial pathology  1  0  2  30.07
Oral medicine  2  0  1  3NA
Dental surgery  3  0  0  3NA
Oral and maxillofacial surgery  2  0  0  20.07
Orthodontics  1  3  1  5NA
Prosthodontics  0  0  2  2NA
Have not decided  2  1  1  4NA
Total17211452

NA, not applicable

In this study, pediatric dentistry was the specialty preferred by only 5th-year and 6th-year respondents, whereas restorative and esthetic dentistry was the specialty preferred by 5th-year respondents, 6th-year respondents, and interns. This finding is in contrast with that of Sam et al., who found that dental students at the Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University preferred orthodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and prosthodontics and implantology.23 Similarly, Halawany et al. reported that Saudi Arabian dental students in their final year preferred restorative and esthetic dentistry as a future specialty.4 Factors affecting students’ career choices were based not only on personal interest but also on the local shortage of specialists in particular areas, which is an important consideration in efforts to increase the specialist-to-patient ratio in Saudi Arabia.23 Other determinants of career choice identified in the present study, such as high earning potential and a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotations, were similar to those in other reports.57,24

Most 5th-year and 6th-year students in this study excluded oral and maxillofacial surgery as a career choice, citing reasons of poor quality of life, lack of direct patient contact, no opportunity for private practice, poor patient outcomes, and high clinical commitments and workload. In contrast, most dental interns excluded pediatric dentistry because of the difficulties inherent in managing the behavior of children.

On balance, the findings of this study highlight the profound impact of negative experiences of dental students and interns on career choice and are consistent with earlier reports.4,7,24 A systematic review published in 2013 concluded that the problem of dental caries in Saudi children needs to be addressed at a government level and by dentists in all sectors.25 The finding in the present study that interns showed little interest in pediatric dentistry should prompt postgraduate programs to encourage undergraduates to pursue specialization in pediatric dentistry.

The 5th-year and 6th-year students in this study expressed a preference for pediatric dentistry, restorative dentistry, endodontics, and orthodontics whereas dental interns preferred oral and maxillofacial surgery. The most likely reason for this change in career choice is exposure to different specialty areas during the clinical years of training.7 A similar pattern of change in the choice of future dental specialty with increasing clinical experience was mentioned in the report by Abdulghani et al.26

The present finding that most students preferred to pursue postgraduate studies abroad echoes that of the study performed in 2010 by Al-Dlaigan et al.27 Reasons given for wanting to study abroad were better learning opportunities, more recently updated programs, new specialties, experiencing another culture, and better research opportunities. These results highlight the need for a plan to improve local postgraduate programs in order to attract graduate students as well as to direct students to postgraduate dental education. Besides, it is advisable to the dental graduates to choose the specialty according to the national statistics which presents specialty shortage, such as, pediatric dentistry.25

A potential limitation of this study is that data were only collected from 5th-year and 6th-year dental students and interns at Taif University and, thus, represents only a small sample of the population. Further research that involves a larger sample size may provide additional insight.

In conclusion, the findings of this study indicate that dental students presently at Taif University would prefer to specialize in pediatric dentistry and restorative and esthetic dentistry. The strongest determinants of their career decisions are the local shortage of specialists in these areas and negative experiences in their undergraduate and internship years. Moreover, students are likely to show a change in career preference as they move through their years of undergraduate training into the clinical years. The data generated by this study can be used to improve the quality of the graduate programs available in Saudi Arabia. More focus is needed on mentorship and providing guidance and encouragement to undergraduate dental students in terms of selecting the most appropriate future specialty. A follow-up study is needed to determine if the findings of the present study translate into reality, to improve students’ experience and exposure to all dental specialties during their clinical years, and to identify ways of encouraging undergraduates to plan careers in specialty areas that are presently understaffed in the Saudi population.

Table 4: Distribution of study participants according to factors influencing career choice
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal–Wallis H
What factors have influenced your choice?Family expectations  0  1  01NA
Family expectations, high income potential  0  1  01NA
Family expectations, teacher or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, advice of a friend, prestige of the specialty, research opportunities, location of practice, high earning potential  0  1  01NA
Future job opportunities, diversity of cases, high earning potential, income generated in private practice  0  2  02NA
Income generated in private practice  0  2  02NA
Income generated in private practice, future job opportunities  0  0  11NA
Income generated in private practice, future job opportunities  0  2  02NA
Income generated in private practice, high earning potential  0  0  11NA
Income generated in private practice, shortage of specialists  0  2  02NA
Personal interest  2  0  02NA
Personal interest, high earning potential  1  0  23NA
Personal interest, a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation, high earning potential  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation, future job opportunities  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high income potential  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities, option to practice abroad, high earning potential  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities, option to practice abroad, high earning potential, shortage of specialists  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, future job opportunities, research opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, high earning potential, shortage of specialists, more opportunity to serve people and the community  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential, future job opportunities, income generated in private practice  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential, income generated in private practice  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, more opportunity to serve people and the community  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, future job opportunities  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, future job opportunities, perceived ability (inclination), less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high income potential  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential, income generated in private practice  0  1  01NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, perceived ability (inclination), less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, research opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community, high earning potential  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, prestige of the specialty, research opportunities, more opportunities to serve people and the community, shortage of specialists  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, research opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, shortage of specialists  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, shortage of specialists, a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation  0  2  13NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, future job opportunities  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, future job opportunities, option to practice abroad, more opportunity to serve people and the community  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, future job opportunities, prestige of the specialty, diversity of cases, option to practice abroad, a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation, more opportunity to serve people and the community, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential, income generated in private practice  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, future job opportunities, shortage of specialists  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, option to practice abroad, more opportunity to serve people and the community, high earning potential  1  0  01NA
Personal interest, teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, prestige of the specialty, diversity of cases, option to practice abroad, a positive experience during undergraduate elective rotation, more opportunity to serve people and the community, less risk of patient morbidity and mortality, high earning potential, income generated in private practice  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, teaching opportunities in other medical colleges, research opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community  0  0  11NA
Personal interest, teaching opportunities in other medical college, research opportunities, more opportunity to serve people and the community  1  0  01NA
Teacher or preceptor’s advice and recommendation  1  0  01NA
Teacher or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, friend’s advice, prestige of the specialty, research opportunities, location of practice, high earning potential  0  1  01NA
Teacher’s or preceptor’s advice and recommendation, future job opportunities  1  0  01NA
Total17211452

NA, not applicable

Table 5: Distribution of study participants according to the specialty they would not choose
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal–Wallis H
What is the specialty that you would not select?Pediatric dentistry408120.03
Community dentistry0202NA
Oral biomaterial2002NA
Endodontics0606NA
Oral and maxillofacial pathology3115NA
Oral medicine0202NA
Oral and maxillofacial surgery684180.04
Prosthodontics1203NA
Have not decided1012NA
Total17211452
Table 6: Distribution of study participants according to reasons for exclusion of some careers
Year 5Year 6InternTotal
What factors made you exclude it?Behavior  1  0  23
Chronic diseases  0  4  04
Chronic diseases, exclusively hospital-based career  0  1  01
Chronic diseases, poor quality of life, exclusively hospital-based career  0  1  01
Excess clinical activity, workload  0  3  03
Excess clinical activity, workload, poor quality of life  1  1  13
Exclusively hospital-based career, excess clinical activity, workload  0  2  02
Exclusively hospital-based career, no technical workload, chronic diseases  0  1  01
Exclusively hospital-based career, no technical workload, chronic diseases, poor quality of life  0  1  01
I do not like children  0  0  11
I do not like dealing with children’s behavior  0  0  11
I do not like dealing with children’s behavior  0  0  11
I do not like it  0  0  11
I do not like it, poor quality of life  0  0  11
Judicial proceedings  1  0  01
Judicial proceedings, excess clinical workload  0  1  01
Judicial proceedings, exclusively hospital-based career  1  0  01
Judicial proceedings, poor quality of life  1  0  01
Lack of recognition  0  2  02
No patient contact, behavior  0  0  11
No patient contact, exclusively hospital-based career  1  0  01
No patient contact, lack of recognition  1  0  01
No patient contact, lack of recognition  1  0  01
No patient contact, no private practice  1  0  01
No patient contact, poor quality of life  1  0  01
No private practice  0  2  02
No technical workload, occupational hazards, e.g., radiation, drug-addicted patients, workload  0  2  02
Nothing  1  0  01
Poor quality of life  1  0  01
Poor quality of life, exclusively hospital-based career  1  0  01
Poor quality of life, exclusively hospital-based career, no patient contact, occupational hazards, e.g., radiation, drug-addicted patients, lack of recognition, chronic diseases, judicial proceedings, competition, poor patient outcomes, excess of clinical activities, workload  0  0  11
Poor quality of life, exclusively hospital-based career, no patient contact, no technical workload, no private practice, occupational hazards, e.g., radiation and drug-addicted patients, lack of recognition, chronic diseases, judicial proceedings, competition, poor patient outcomes, excess clinical activity, workload  0  0  11
Poor quality of life, exclusively hospital-based career, no private practice  0  0  11
Poor quality of life, no patient contact, no technical workload, no private practice  2  0  02
Poor quality of life, no patient contact, poor patient outcomes, excess clinical activity, workload  2  0  02
Poor quality of life, no private practice  0  0  22
Total17211452

NA, not applicable

Table 7: Distribution of study participants according to preferred specialty during the basic science year
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal-Wallis H
What was your preferred specialty during the basic science year?Pediatric dentistry  3  0  1  4  NA
Restorative dentistry  3  2  0  50.09
Endodontics  0  6  0  6  NA
Cosmetic dentistry  0  3  1  4NA
Oral and maxillofacial pathology  2  0  3  50.09
Oral medicine  2  0  0  2NA
Oral and maxillofacial surgery  2  0  2  40.09
Orthodontics  1  8  2110.03
Prosthodontics  0  2  2  40.09
Oral and maxillofacial radiology  2  0  0  2NA
Have not decided  2  0  3  50.09
Total17211452

NA, not applicable

Table 8: Distribution of study participants according to their plan to obtain a postgraduate degree locally or abroad
Year 5Year 6InternTotalKruskal–Wallis H
Are you planning to obtain a postgraduate degree locally or abroad?Abroad141510390.03
Locally  3  6  4130.09
Chi-square p value  0.03  0.03  0.03
Total17211452

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

I am the only author of this manuscript and I have the rights to make necessary changes as per the request of the journal, do the rest of the correspondence, and will act as the guarantor for the manuscript.

Table 9: Distribution of study participants according to why they would consider completing their postgraduate education abroad
Year 5Year 6Dental internTotal
Why would you complete your postgraduate education abroad?  3  6  413
Better learning opportunity  2  1  0  3
Better learning opportunity, better research experience  2  1  2  5
Better learning opportunity, experiencing another culture  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, experiencing another culture, better research experience  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements  0  0  1  1
Better learning opportunity, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements, better research experience  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, new specialty  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, new specialty, better research experience  2  0  0  2
Better learning opportunity, newly established local program, new specialty, experiencing another culture  0  2  0  2
Better learning opportunity, newly established local program specialty, experiencing another culture, better research experience  0  4  0  4
Better learning opportunity, poor training opportunity in local program, new specialty, specialty not currently available locally, future instrument requirements  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, poor training opportunity in local program, new specialty, specialty not currently available locally, future instrument requirements, better research experience  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, better research experience  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, newly established local program, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements  0  0  1  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, newly established local program, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements, better research experiences  0  0  1  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, poor training opportunity in local program, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, poor training opportunity in local program, experiencing another culture, future instrument, better research experiences, future instrument requirements  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, better research experiences  0  1  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different healthcare system, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements  1  0  0  1
Better learning opportunity, practising in a different health system, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, future instrument requirements, better research experiences  0  0  1  1
Better learning opportunity, prestige of international qualification, better research experiences  1  0  0  1
practising in a different healthcare system, better research experiences  0  0  2  2
practising in a different healthcare system, specialty not currently available locally, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture  0  0  1  1
practising in a different healthcare system, specialty not currently available locally, prestige of international qualification, experiencing another culture, better research experiences  0  0  1  1
Prestige of international qualification, better research experiences  1  0  0  1
Total17211452

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is grateful to Dr Sakeenabi Basha for her kind advice.

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